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<title>Mathematics Subject Classification</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mathematics Subject Classification</span></span>

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<p>The <b>Mathematics Subject Classification</b> (<b>MSC</b>) is an alphanumerical <a href="Classification_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification scheme">classification scheme</a> that has collaboratively been produced by staff of, and based on the coverage of, the two major mathematical reviewing databases, <a href="Mathematical_Reviews" title="Mathematical Reviews">Mathematical Reviews</a> and <a href="Zentralblatt_MATH" class="mw-redirect" title="Zentralblatt MATH">Zentralblatt MATH</a>. The MSC is used by many mathematics <a href="Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">journals</a>, which ask authors of <a href="Academic_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic paper">research papers</a> and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The current version is MSC2020.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div>

<p>The MSC is a hierarchical scheme, with three levels of structure. A classification can be two, three or five digits long, depending on how many levels of the classification scheme are used.

</p><p>The first level is represented by a two-digit number, the second by a letter, and the third by another two-digit number. For example:

</p>

<ul><li><b>53</b> is the classification for <a href="Differential_geometry" title="Differential geometry">differential geometry</a></li>

<li><b>53A</b> is the classification for classical differential geometry</li>

<li><b>53A45</b> is the classification for <a href="Euclidean_vector" title="Euclidean vector">vector</a> and <a href="Tensor" title="Tensor">tensor</a> analysis</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_level">First level</h3></div>

<p>At the top level, 63 mathematical disciplines are labeled with a unique two-digit number. In addition to the typical areas of mathematical research, there are top-level categories for "<a href="History" title="History">History</a> and <a href="Biography" title="Biography">Biography</a>", "<a href="Mathematics_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematics Education">Mathematics Education</a>", and for the overlap with different sciences. <a href="Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a> (i.e. mathematical physics) is particularly well represented in the classification scheme with a number of different categories including:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics">Fluid mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a> and <a href="Electromagnetic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic theory">electromagnetic theory</a></li></ul>

<p>All valid MSC classification codes must have at least the first-level identifier.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_level">Second level</h3></div>

<p>The second-level codes are a single letter from the Latin alphabet. These represent specific areas covered by the first-level discipline. The second-level codes vary from discipline to discipline.

</p><p>For example, for differential geometry, the top-level code is <b>53</b>, and the second-level codes are:

</p>

<ul><li><b>A</b> for classical differential geometry</li>

<li><b>B</b> for local differential geometry</li>

<li><b>C</b> for global differential geometry</li>

<li><b>D</b> for symplectic geometry and contact geometry</li></ul>

<p>In addition, the special second-level code "-" is used for specific kinds of materials. These codes are of the form:

</p>

<ul><li><b>53-00</b> General reference works (handbooks, dictionaries, bibliographies, etc.)</li>

<li><b>53-01</b> Instructional exposition (textbooks, tutorial papers, etc.)</li>

<li><b>53-02</b> Research exposition (monographs, survey articles)</li>

<li><b>53-03</b> Historical (must also be assigned at least one classification number from Section 01)</li>

<li><b>53-04</b> Explicit machine computation and programs (not the theory of computation or programming)</li>

<li><b>53-06</b> Proceedings, conferences, collections, etc.</li></ul>

<p>The second and third level of these codes are always the same - only the first level changes. For example, it is not valid to use <b>53-</b> as a classification. Either <b>53</b> on its own or, better yet, a more specific code should be used.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_level">Third level</h3></div>

<p>Third-level codes are the most specific, usually corresponding to a specific kind of mathematical object or a well-known problem or research area.

</p><p>The third-level code 99 exists in every category and means <i>none of the above, but in this section</i>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Using_the_scheme">Using the scheme</h2></div>

<p>The AMS recommends that papers submitted to its journals for publication have one primary classification and one or more optional secondary classifications. A typical MSC subject class line on a research paper looks like

</p><p>MSC Primary 03C90; Secondary 03-02;

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

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<p>According to the <a href="American_Mathematical_Society" title="American Mathematical Society">American Mathematical Society</a> (AMS) help page about MSC,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the MSC has been revised a number of times since 1940. Based on a scheme to organize AMS's <i>Mathematical Offprint Service</i> (MOS scheme), the <i>AMS Classification</i> was established for the classification of reviews in <i>Mathematical Reviews</i> in the 1960s. It saw various ad-hoc changes. Despite its shortcomings, <a href="Zentralblatt_f%C3%BCr_Mathematik" class="mw-redirect" title="Zentralblatt für Mathematik">Zentralblatt für Mathematik</a> started to use it as well in the 1970s. In the late 1980s, a jointly revised scheme with more formal rules was agreed upon by Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt für Mathematik under the new name Mathematics Subject Classification. It saw various revisions as <i>MSC1990</i>, <i>MSC2000</i> and <i>MSC2010</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2016, Mathematical Reviews and zbMATH started collecting input from the mathematical community on the next revision of MSC,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was released as MSC2020

<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in January 2020.

</p><p>The original classification of older items has not been changed. This can sometimes make it difficult to search for older works dealing with particular topics. Changes at the first level involved the subjects with (present) codes 03, 08, 12-20, 28, 37, 51, 58, 74, 90, 91, 92.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_other_classification_schemes">Relation to other classification schemes</h2></div>

<p>For physics papers the <a href="Physics_and_Astronomy_Classification_Scheme" title="Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme">Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme</a> (PACS) is often used. Due to the large overlap between mathematics and physics research it is quite common to see both PACS and MSC codes on research papers, particularly for multidisciplinary journals and repositories such as the <a href="ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</a>.

</p><p>The <a href="ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing Classification System</a> (CCS) is a similar <a href="Hierarchical_classification" title="Hierarchical classification">hierarchical classification</a> scheme for <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>. There is some overlap between the AMS and ACM classification schemes, in subjects related to both mathematics and computer science, however the two schemes differ in the details of their organization of those topics.

</p><p>The classification scheme used on the arXiv is chosen to reflect the papers submitted. As arXiv is multidisciplinary its classification scheme does not fit entirely with the MSC, ACM or PACS classification schemes. It is common to see codes from one or more of these schemes on individual papers.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First-level_areas">First-level areas</h2></div>

<ul><li>00: General (Includes topics such as <a href="Recreational_mathematics" title="Recreational mathematics">recreational mathematics</a>, <a href="Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a> and <a href="Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical modeling</a>.)</li>

<li>01: <a href="History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">History</a> and <a href="List_of_mathematicians" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mathematicians">biography</a></li>

<li>03: <a href="Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical logic</a> and <a href="Foundations_of_mathematics" title="Foundations of mathematics">foundations</a> (including <a href="Model_theory" title="Model theory">model theory</a>, <a href="Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">computability theory</a>, <a href="Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a>, <a href="Proof_theory" title="Proof theory">proof theory</a>, and <a href="Algebraic_logic" title="Algebraic logic">algebraic logic</a>)</li>

<li>05: <a href="Combinatorics" title="Combinatorics">Combinatorics</a></li>

<li>06: <a href="Order_theory" title="Order theory">Order</a>, lattices, ordered algebraic structures</li>

<li>08: General <a href="Algebraic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Algebraic system">algebraic systems</a></li>

<li>11: <a href="Number_theory" title="Number theory">Number theory</a></li>

<li>12: <a href="Field_theory_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Field theory (mathematics)">Field theory</a> and <a href="Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomials</a></li>

<li>13: <a href="Commutative_algebra" title="Commutative algebra">Commutative algebra</a> (<a href="Commutative_ring" title="Commutative ring">Commutative rings</a> and <a href="Commutative_algebra_(structure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Commutative algebra (structure)">algebras</a>)</li>

<li>14: <a href="Algebraic_geometry" title="Algebraic geometry">Algebraic geometry</a></li>

<li>15: <a href="Linear_algebra" title="Linear algebra">Linear</a> and <a href="Multilinear_algebra" title="Multilinear algebra">multilinear algebra</a>; <a href="Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrix theory</a></li>

<li>16: <a href="Associative_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Associative ring">Associative rings</a> and <a href="Associative_algebra" title="Associative algebra">(associative) algebras</a></li>

<li>17: <a href="Non-associative_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-associative ring">Non-associative rings</a> and <a href="Non-associative_algebra" title="Non-associative algebra">(non-associative) algebras</a></li>

<li>18: <a href="Category_theory" title="Category theory">Category theory</a>; <a href="Homological_algebra" title="Homological algebra">homological algebra</a></li>

<li>19: <a href="K-theory" title="K-theory"><span class="texhtml"><i>K</i></span>-theory</a></li>

<li>20: <a href="Group_theory" title="Group theory">Group theory</a> and generalizations</li>

<li>22: <a href="Topological_group" title="Topological group">Topological groups</a>, <a href="Lie_group" title="Lie group">Lie groups</a> (and analysis upon them)</li>

<li>26: <a href="Real_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Real function">Real functions</a> (including <a href="Derivative" title="Derivative">derivatives</a> and <a href="Integral" title="Integral">integrals</a>)</li>

<li>28: <a href="Measure_(mathematics)" title="Measure (mathematics)">Measure</a> and <a href="Integral" title="Integral">integration</a></li>

<li>30: <a href="Complex_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex function">Functions of a complex variable</a> (including <a href="Approximation_theory" title="Approximation theory">approximation theory</a> in the <a href="Complex_number" title="Complex number">complex domain</a>)</li>

<li>31: <a href="Potential_theory" title="Potential theory">Potential theory</a></li>

<li>32: <a href="Several_complex_variables" class="mw-redirect" title="Several complex variables">Several complex variables</a> and <a href="Analytic_space" title="Analytic space">analytic spaces</a></li>

<li>33: <a href="Special_functions" title="Special functions">Special functions</a></li>

<li>34: <a href="Ordinary_differential_equation" title="Ordinary differential equation">Ordinary differential equations</a></li>

<li>35: <a href="Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">Partial differential equations</a></li>

<li>37: <a href="Dynamical_system" title="Dynamical system">Dynamical systems</a> and <a href="Ergodic_theory" title="Ergodic theory">ergodic theory</a></li>

<li>39: <a href="Difference_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Difference equation">Difference equations</a> and <a href="Functional_equation" title="Functional equation">functional equations</a></li>

<li>40: <a href="Sequence" title="Sequence">Sequences</a>, <a href="Series_(mathematics)" title="Series (mathematics)">series</a>, <a href="Summability" class="mw-redirect" title="Summability">summability</a></li>

<li>41: <a href="Approximation_theory" title="Approximation theory">Approximations</a> and <a href="Series_expansion" title="Series expansion">expansions</a></li>

<li>42: <a href="Harmonic_analysis" title="Harmonic analysis">Harmonic analysis</a> on <a href="Euclidean_space" title="Euclidean space">Euclidean spaces</a> (including <a href="Fourier_analysis" title="Fourier analysis">Fourier analysis</a>, <a href="Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transforms</a>, <a href="Trigonometric_approximation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigonometric approximation">trigonometric approximation</a>, <a href="Trigonometric_interpolation" title="Trigonometric interpolation">trigonometric interpolation</a>, and <a href="Orthogonal_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthogonal function">orthogonal functions</a>)</li>

<li>43: Abstract <a href="Harmonic_analysis" title="Harmonic analysis">harmonic analysis</a></li>

<li>44: <a href="Integral_transform" title="Integral transform">Integral transforms</a>, <a href="Operational_calculus" title="Operational calculus">operational calculus</a></li>

<li>45: <a href="Integral_equation" title="Integral equation">Integral equations</a></li>

<li>46: <a href="Functional_analysis" title="Functional analysis">Functional analysis</a> (including <a href="Infinite-dimensional_holomorphy" title="Infinite-dimensional holomorphy">infinite-dimensional holomorphy</a>, <a href="Integral_transform" title="Integral transform">integral transforms</a> in <a href="Distribution_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Distribution space">distribution spaces</a>)</li>

<li>47: <a href="Operator_theory" title="Operator theory">Operator theory</a></li>

<li>49: <a href="Calculus_of_variations" title="Calculus of variations">Calculus of variations</a> and <a href="Optimal_control" title="Optimal control">optimal control</a>; <a href="Optimization_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimization (mathematics)">optimization</a> (including <a href="Geometric_integration_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Geometric integration theory">geometric integration theory</a>)</li>

<li>51: <a href="Geometry" title="Geometry">Geometry</a></li>

<li>52: <a href="Convex_geometry" title="Convex geometry">Convex</a> and <a href="Discrete_geometry" title="Discrete geometry">discrete geometry</a></li>

<li>53: <a href="Differential_geometry" title="Differential geometry">Differential geometry</a></li>

<li>54: <a href="General_topology" title="General topology">General topology</a></li>

<li>55: <a href="Algebraic_topology" title="Algebraic topology">Algebraic topology</a></li>

<li>57: <a href="Manifold" title="Manifold">Manifolds</a> and cell complexes</li>

<li>58: <a href="Global_analysis" title="Global analysis">Global analysis</a>, <a href="Analysis_on_manifolds" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis on manifolds">analysis on manifolds</a> (including <a href="Infinite-dimensional_holomorphy" title="Infinite-dimensional holomorphy">infinite-dimensional holomorphy</a>)</li>

<li>60: <a href="Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">Probability theory</a> and <a href="Stochastic_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Stochastic processes">stochastic processes</a></li>

<li>62: <a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li>

<li>65: <a href="Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li>

<li>68: <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></li>

<li>70: <a href="Mechanics" title="Mechanics">Mechanics</a> of particles and systems (including <a href="Particle_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle mechanics">particle mechanics</a>)</li>

<li>74: <a href="Elasticity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Elasticity theory">Mechanics of deformable solids</a></li>

<li>76: <a href="Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics">Fluid mechanics</a></li>

<li>78: <a href="Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, <a href="Electromagnetic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic theory">electromagnetic theory</a></li>

<li>80: Classical <a href="Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">heat transfer</a></li>

<li>81: <a href="Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum theory</a></li>

<li>82: <a href="Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical mechanics</a>, structure of matter</li>

<li>83: <a href="Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Relativity</a> and <a href="Gravitational_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational theory">gravitational theory</a> (including <a href="Relativistic_mechanics" title="Relativistic mechanics">relativistic mechanics</a>)</li>

<li>85: <a href="Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> and <a href="Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a></li>

<li>86: <a href="Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li>

<li>90: <a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a>, <a href="Mathematical_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical programming">mathematical programming</a></li>

<li>91: <a href="Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a>, <a href="Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">economics</a>, <a href="Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">social</a> and <a href="Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">behavioral sciences</a></li>

<li>92: <a href="Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> and other <a href="Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a></li>

<li>93: <a href="Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Systems theory</a>; <a href="Control_theory" title="Control theory">control</a> (including <a href="Optimal_control" title="Optimal control">optimal control</a>)</li>

<li>94: <a href="Information" title="Information">Information</a> and <a href="Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, <a href="Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">circuits</a></li>

<li>97: <a href="Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics education</a></li></ul>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a> has the property:

<ul><li><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> <b><i><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Property_talk:P3285" class="extiw external" title="d:Property talk:P3285">Mathematics Subject Classification ID (P3285)</a></i></b> (see <span class=""><a class="external text external" href="https://query.wikidata.org/embed.html#SELECT%20%3FWikidata_item_%20%3FWikidata_item_Label%20%3Fvalue%20%3FvalueLabel%20%3FEnglish_Wikipedia_article%20%23Show%20data%20in%20this%20order%0A%7B%0A%09%3FWikidata_item_%20wdt%3AP3285%20%3Fvalue%20.%20%23Collecting%20all%20items%20which%20have%20P3285%20data%2C%20from%20whole%20Wikidata%20item%20pages%0A%09OPTIONAL%20%7B%3FEnglish_Wikipedia_article%20schema%3Aabout%20%3FWikidata_item_%3B%20schema%3AisPartOf%20%3Chttps%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2F%3E%20.%7D%20%23If%20collected%20item%20has%20link%20to%20English%20Wikipedia%2C%20show%20that%0A%09SERVICE%20wikibase%3Alabel%20%7B%20bd%3AserviceParam%20wikibase%3Alanguage%20%22en%22%20%20%7D%20%23Show%20label%20in%20this%20language.%20%22en%22%20is%20English.%20%20%20%0A%7D%0ALIMIT%201000">uses</a></span>)</li></ul></div></div>

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<ul><li><a href="Areas_of_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Areas of mathematics">Areas of mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_knowledge_management" title="Mathematical knowledge management">Mathematical knowledge management</a></li>

<li><a href="MathSciNet" title="MathSciNet">MathSciNet</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ams.org/mathscinet/help/field_help.html#mscp">MR: Help: MSC Primary</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Bernd_Wegner_(mathematician)" title="Bernd Wegner (mathematician)">Bernd Wegner</a>. <i>Indexierung mathematischer Literatur Die Revision der Mathematics Subject Classification MSC</i>. Institute of Mathematics, TU Berlin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://fidmath.de/fileadmin/download/graz_wegner.ppt">http://fidmath.de/fileadmin/download/graz_wegner.ppt</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://msc2020.org">Announcement of the plan to revise the Mathematics Subject Classification</a></span>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFDunneHulek2020" class="citation journal cs1">Dunne, Edward; Hulek, Klaus (4 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/static/msc2020.pdf">"Mathematics Subject Classification 2020"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>EMS Newsletter</i>. <b>115</b>. Mathematical Reviews and zbMATH Open: <span class="nowrap">5–</span>6. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4171%2FNEWS%2F115%2F2">10.4171/NEWS/115/2</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 Mar</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/static/msc2020.pdf">MSC2020-Mathematical Sciences Classification System</a> (PDF of MSC2020)</li>

<li>The <a href="Zentralblatt_MATH" class="mw-redirect" title="Zentralblatt MATH">Zentralblatt MATH</a> page on the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/classification/">Mathematics Subject Classification</a>. MSC2020 can be seen here.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msc2010.org/mscwiki/index.php?title=MSC2010">Mathematics Subject Classification 2010</a> – the site where the MSC2010 revision was carried out publicly in an MSCwiki. A view of the whole scheme and the changes made from MSC2000, as well as PDF files of the MSC and ancillary documents are there. A personal copy of the MSC in <a href="TiddlyWiki" title="TiddlyWiki">TiddlyWiki</a> form can be had also.</li>

<li>The <a href="American_Mathematical_Society" title="American Mathematical Society">American Mathematical Society</a> page on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ams.org/msc/">the Mathematics Subject Classification</a>.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRusin" class="citation web cs1">Rusin, Dave. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150516045812/http://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/known-math/index/beginners.html">"A Gentle Introduction to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme"</a>. <i>Mathematical Atlas</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/known-math/index/beginners.html">the original</a> on 2015-05-16.</cite></li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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